Meats to be frozen should be wrapped tightly in aluminum foil, heavy plastic bags, or freezer paper and stored at or below 0^oF (-18^oC). It is a good idea to first trim meat of bone and fat and to divide it up into individual servings before wrapping and freezing it.

Most beef cuts can be kept frozen for six to twelve months, but ground beef should be frozen for no longer than about three months. The colder temperatures reached by commercial freezers for at least 20 days at 5^oF (-15^oC) can kill T.spiralis. If not frozen to this degree, pork should always be cooked to the recommended temperature of 160^oF (71^oC). Wrappers often hide the identity of their contents, so the packages of frozen foods should be labeled and dated. It is better to make more frequent purchases than to freeze meat for extended periods of time, which can reduce its quality.

The texture and flavor of thawed meats will be adversely affected if they are refrozen. Freezer burn, caused by loss of moisture from the frozen food’s surface, can result if meat is stored longer than the recommended storage time or when it is wrapped in materials that are not vapor-proof or are punctured. The dehydration of freezer burn causes a discolored surface on the meat that becomes very dry, tough, and somewhat bitter in flavor when cooked.

Meats are best refrigerated at just above freezing (32^oF), between 32^oF and 36^oF. They do not freeze until the temperature drops to below 28^oF. The best place to store meats in the refrigerator is in the coldest part. Many refrigerators have such an area or compartment reserved for meat storage.

Most retail meats are packaged with plastic wrap and can be refrigerated in their original wrap for up to two days. After that time, the store wrapping should be removed and replaced by loosely wrapped plastic wrap, wax paper, or aluminum foil. Leaving the tight store wrapping on meat for more than two days creates moist surfaces, which promote bacterial growth and deterioration of the meat. Exceptions to this general storage guideline are hams and other processed meats that are high in salt. They should not be stored in aluminum foil because the salt’s corrosive action on aluminum foil will cause discoloration of the meat. Cured meats are also high in fat, which quickly turns rancid when exposed to oxygen and light. For this reason, ham and other processed meats are best stored in the refrigerator in their original wrappings.

General guidelines suggest that fresh meat should not be stored in the refrigerator longer than three to five days, and that ground meats and variety meats should be cooked within one or two days. Variety meats are more perishable than regular meat cuts and should be used within a day or two of purchase or frozen immediately. Cooked meat can be kept for about three to four days. If the meat needs to be kept longer than the recommended storage times, it should be frozen.

One alternative to storing meats for long periods of time at refrigeration temperatures is a new, patented, controlled-atmosphere package (CAP) available only to meat wholesalers. It can extend the shelf life of fresh red meat from the current 2 days to up to 28 days. The process involves using a special package that allows the removal of oxygen and its replacement with a mixture of 70 percent nitrogen and 30 percent carbon dioxide.

Braising consists of simmering meat, covered, in a small amount of water or other liquid. It is ideal for less tender cuts such as beef chuck, round, and flank, because braising breaks down collagen and tenderizes the meat. Some smaller meat cuts such as round steaks, pork and veal chops, and organ meats are also good “braisers”.

The most common braised meats are pot roasts, which are large cuts of meat cooked whole and served in slices covered with their own cooking liquid. Adding vegetables completes the meal and adds color. Chopped vegetables commonly added to pot roasts include potatoes, carrots, onions, celery, and tomatoes.

Although not necessary, browning the meat prior to adding the liquid improves the final color and flavor. Before browning, the meat should be dried with a paper towel. It is sometimes dredged with seasoned flour before browning. As with any browning, it is essential not to overcrowd the pan and to brown the meat in batches if necessary. After the liquid is added, the pan is covered and the liquid brought to a simmer; boiling must be guarded against because it will toughen the meat. The goal is to simmer the meat until it is tender. Doneness when braising is determined by fork tenderness. The flavor of the braising liquid can be enhanced by the addition of wine, soup stock, marinades, seasonings, or tomato products. Only enough liquid, no more than 1 inch, should be added to produce steam.

If too much liquid is used, it can reduce the flavor by sheer dilution.

Pan-Broiling. Very thin cuts of meat, less than 1/2 inch, can be pan-broiled to achieve a tasty outside crust without overcooking the meat. In this method, heat is applied directly through the hot surface of a heavy pan or flat grill. Thin, tender cuts of beef steaks, lamb chops, and ground-beef patties are perfect for pan-broiling. Place the meat on the hot surface of the preheated pan with no added fat or oil. Any drippings should be drained during heating to prevent frying. The meat can be seasoned before, during, or after placing it on the pan.

Frying. Sauteing, pan-frying, and deep-frying are suitable for tender, small pieces of meat that are low in fat or that have a breaded coating.

Sauteing. Sauteing is identical to pan-broiling except that a small amount of fat is heated to the sizzling point before the meat is added. Examples of sauteed meat dishes include liver and onions, veal oscar, veal piccata, and veal cordon bleu. Liver should be salted after it is sauteed or else it will toughen and shrivel. Stir-frying is an adapted version of sauteing that has become increasingly popular. For stir-frying, thin slices of meat are cooked in an oiled wok or other sloping-side pan. The meat is stirred constantly over high heat for about three minutes to promote even heating. When the meat is done, it is moved to the side, and chopped vegetables are added to the pan. As soon as they are barely tender, they are mixed with the meat and any desired sauces or flavorings.

Pan-Frying. More fat (but no more than up to 1/2 inch deep) and lower heating temperatures and times are used in pan-frying than in sauteing. Commonly pan-fried meat cuts are larger and include steaks, chops, and sliced pieces of liver. Meats are often seasoned and coated with flour or breading before pan-frying. The fat used in sauteing or in pan-frying should be vegetable oil or clarified butter. The low smoking temperatures of whole butter and margarine make them unsuitable for frying. An alternative to frying steaks and chops in oil is to use a teflon pan or to sprinkle the pan with a thin layer of salt. The pan is heated until a drop of water hisses; the meat is then added, fried, and turned when the underside has reached the desired brownness.

Deep-Frying. Meat, with the exception of chicken-fried steak, is seldom deep-fried. When it is, the meat is usually cut into small pieces and dipped in seasoned flour or cornstarch, placed in a wire basket, submerged in oil preheated to 300^o to 360^oF (149^o to 182^oC), and heated until golden brown.

Smaller cuts of tender meat ranging from 1 to 3 inches in thickness can be broiled or grilled. High temperatures and short heating times will keep the meat tender. Broiling and grilling times are based primarily on the meat’s thickness and its distance from the heat. Ovens, whether electric or gas, need at least 15 minutes to reach the desired temperature, while charcoal or wood fires need at least 25 minutes to burn down to the required heat. Beef retail cuts suitable for broiling include the following steaks in descending order of tenderness: filet mignon, strip loin, delmonico, rib eye, top butt sirloin, chuck tender, and top round. A very light layer of oil on the meat will keep it from sticking ot the grill, while using a marinade, spice rub, or adding sauces during basting will yield more flavor.

The goal in either broiling or grilling is to simultaneously heat the inside of the meat while achieving just the right degree of browning on the exterior. The thickness of the cut and the desired level of doneness dictate the intensity of the heat, which is controlled by altering the distance of the meat from the heat source, for 2 inches for cuts less than 1 inch thick, to up to 5 inches for thicker cuts. When broiling thicker steaks or those to be well-done, the broiler rack in an electric oven should be lowered and the door left open to prevent steam from accumulating and preventing the meat from browning. Gas broiler doors are left closed.

The oven, broiler, or grill should be preheated. Then the meat should be placed under the broiler or over the coals and heated until one side is brown. Tongs should be used to turn the meat, but if a fork is used, it is best inserted into the flat trim. The second side is heated to the desired stage of doneness. When heating is complete, remove and serve immediately. One of the benefits of using a grill is that attractive, appetizing grill marks can be made by turning the meat over according to the pattern required.

Tender cuts are usually prepared by one of the dry-heating methods: roasting (baking), broiling, grilling, pan-broiling, and frying.

Roasting. Roasting is the heating of moderate-to-large tender cuts of meat in the dry hot air of an oven. A roast will usually be at least 2.5 inches thick and provide more than three servings. The meat is placed, with any fat side up, on a rack in an open pan. The rack prevents the meat from sitting in its own juices, which would cause the meat to simmer rather than roast. If a rack is not available, one can be made by lining up carrots and celery stalks lengthwise across the bottom of the pan. Temperatures from 300^o to 350^oF (149^o to 177^oC) are recommended for roasting and should produce an evenly cooked, easy to carve, juicy, tender, flavorful roast with a greater yield than higher temperatures would have produced.

Higher temperatures of 350^o to 500^oF (177^o to 260^oC) are recommended to produce roasts with deeply seared crusts in less time, but the higher oven temperatures cause greater shrinkage. In general, it usually takes 18-30 minutes of roasting time for every pound of meat. Roasts should be removed from the oven slightly before their final desired temperature is reached and allowed to stand for 15 to 30 minutes in order for carry-over cooking to occur. This will also make carving easier and result in a more evenly juicy roast.