Precautions should be taken in the handling of poultry, because of the possibility of their being contaminated with bacteria. Salmonella is one of the most common causes of foodborne illness. Some of its major sources include raw poultry, eggs, and stuffing. In 1993, the irradiation of poultry was approved for commercial use in the control of Salmonella following several studies that showed it reduces bacterial concentration. Irradiated poultry, however, is not sterile and should be handled using the same precautions used for non-irradiated raw poultry. In 1992, the use of trisodium phosphate (TSP), a colorless, odorless, flavorless chemical mixture, also received approval for use by the poultry industry on poultry carcasses to further aid in reducing Salmonella contamination.

Fresh, ready-to-cook poultry can be kept safely in the refrigerator at 40^oF (4^oC) or below for up to three days. It should be stored in the vapor-proof wrapping in which it is purchases, since repackaging increases the risk of bacterial contamination. It is best kept in the bottom portion of the refrigerator to prevent its drippings from contaminating other foods. Chickens labeled “fresh” should not have gone below 26^oF (-3^oC), the temperature at which chickens freeze. Frozen whole poultry can be stored from six to twelve months at 0^oF (-18^oC), while leftover cooked poultry can be frozen for up to four months. The meat will decline in moistness and eating quality if it is kept frozen beyond the recommended times.

Breaded or fried poultry should never be thawed and refrozen. Defrosting is recommended in the refrigerator, where it will take about a day to defrost an average chicken, and one day for each five pounds of turkey. Once defrosted, poultry or any other meat should not be refrozen unless it has been cooked. Stuffing should be refrigerated promptly and consumed within two or three days.

Microwave ovens do not always heat food deeply or evenly enough, and power levels vary from brand to brand, so it is suggested that stuffed poultry, particularly turkeys, be prepared in the conventional oven. The microwave manufacturers’ instructions should be followed for preparing all other poultry. This is equally true when it comes to thawing poultry or any other frozen food. Once thawed in the microwave oven, the poultry should be cooked immediately.

In general, microwave directions call for smaller pieces of poultry rather than whole fowl. If a recipe calls for chicken pieces, a microwave can be handy. The poultry pieces are arranged skin side up, with the thickest portions toward the outside of the dish and any loose flaps of skin tucked under. The dish is covered with wax paper or plastic wrap and cooked on high for about 8 minutes per pound, or according to the manufacturer’s directions. Chicken breasts are heated on high for about 10 minutes or until well done. The pieces should be rotated at the 5-minute mark.

Flavor and appearance are enhanced if the pieces are initially covered with browning sauce, barbecue sauce, or some other topping. Cooking is completed when the flesh is firm and fork tender, and the juices run clear instead of pink. However, temperature readings, being more accurate, are recommended. The finished pieces should be let to stand about five minutes before serving. If they are to be used in a salad or other dish, it is best to chill them in the refrigerator for at least two hours. Two boned, skinned, chicken breasts will yield 1 cup of cubed chicken meat.

Stewing. Any whole or cut-up fresh poultry can be covered in cold salted water and heated to the boiling point, at which point the heat is immediately lowered to simmer. An average 3.5 pound chicken usually takes about 2 to 2.5 hours. The bones and skin may or may not be removed from the pot, and dumplings, which are made from a dough mixture, can be placed gently on top of the simmering chicken 12 to 15 minutes before the end of preparation time.

Poaching. Chicken pieces can be poached fairly quickly in a small amount of water. The chicken pieces, such as breasts, are placed in a frying pan and covered with 1.5 cups water. The water is brought to a boil and then reduced to a simmer, and the chicken is cooked about 10 to 15 minutes or until tender.

Although braising, also called fricasseeing, can be used with any poultry, it is of particular value when it comes to preparing older, tougher birds. The slow, moist heating tenderizes the meat and makes it easier to chew. The chicken or turkey is first cut into pieces and browned in a small amount of oil and/or butter; it may be floured or breaded first.

Liquid is added, and the poultry is simmered in a tightly covered pan until tender. The initial browning is important because it helps create a rich flavor and holds in the juices. Desired seasonings are added with the liquid.

Poultry pieces can be sauteed, pan-fried, deep-fried, or stir-fried.

Sauteing. Small poultry pieces are placed in a skillet or pan with a small amount of oil for quick preparation. Pieces must be turned to assure adequate doneness. Sauteing can also be used to brown larger poultry pieces prior to their being baked or braised to completion.

Pan-Frying. Pan-fried chicken pieces are usually breaded or floured before they are fried over high heat in approximately 1/4 inch of fat. The breading adds texture and flavor and keeps moisture from being lost from the fried food. It also allows heat to be transmitted to the food without its absorbing as much fat. Fry with the skin side down first; when that side is brown, turn it over with tongs and brown the other side. Lower the heat and turn the pieces occasionally, for 30 to 45 minutes, or until done. If the poultry is placed in the oven following browning, the method of preparation is referred to as “oven fried”, even though it is actually baked.

Deep-Frying. Deep-frying poultry pieces that have been breaded, floured or battered involves submerging them completely in oil heated to between 325 and 350F (160 to 180C).

Stir-Frying. Stir-frying is lightly frying bite-size pieces of boned chicken while stirring them frequently in a tiny amount of oil. Vegetables, also cut into small pieces, are usually added, along with soy sauce and/or other seasonings.

Except when cooking a whole bird on a spit over hot coals, only cut-up poultry is used for broiling or grilling. It is frequently marinated or coated with butter and seasonings before being broiled or grilled. In the interest of food safety, marination must take place under refrigeration. A marinade must be fully cooked if it is to be served or used for basting. Failure to heat the marinade to a sufficient temperature to kill the bacteria that remain in it from the raw chicken may cause a foodborne illness. For the same reason, unless it is thoroughly washed in the interim, the plate used to carry the raw poultry to the grill should never be used to carry it back to the table after it is cooked.

Vegetable sprays applied to the pan or grill help to prevent sticking. When an oven broiler is used, the poultry pieces are put skin-side up on a rack in the broiler pan and placed approximately 6 inches below the heat source. The same procedure is used for grilling over coals, except that the skin side goes down. The cooking time varies according to thickness, but in general, chicken takes 20 minutes per side. Turkey pieces are larger and so require longer cooking.

Once the skin side is browned, use tongs to turn the poultry pieces over, since the piercing tines of a fork will allow juices to be lost. Sauces are best added during the last 15 minutes of preparation, because high heat readily burns sugar, which is the main ingredient of many barbecue sauces.

Internal Temperature. The best way to check poultry for doneness is to use a meat thermometer. It should be inserted into the thickest part of the breast, although it can also be inserted in the inner thigh. In either case, it should not touch bone or fat. Poultry is sufficiently cooked when the internal temperature reaches 180 to 185F (82 to 85C). The pop-up thermometers that some poultry producers place in turkey breasts are not always reliable, so check for other signs of doneness. A thermometer placed in the center of any stuffing should reach a minimum temperature of 165F (74C).

Color Changes. When oven-roasted chicken or turkey reaches a golden brown color, it is time to test for doneness. The juices coming out of the bird should have turned from pink to clear, and a bit of bone should be showing on the tip of the legs. When a turkey is roasted breast side up, the breast should be covered with metal foil or a bit of cooking oil to keep the breast from over-browning or burning. The foil should be removed 45 minutes to an hour before the end of heating to allow for final browning.

Touch. When pressed firmly with one or two fingers, the well-done bird’s flesh will feel firm, not soft. White meat may be firmer than dark meat in part because certain proteins have a higher gel-forming ability in white muscle than when they are located in the dark muscles. Another way to tell whether or not the poultry is done though touch is to wiggle the drumstick – it should move easily in its joint.

Time/Weight Charts. Time/weight charts appear on the packaging of all frozen and many fresh birds. It takes about 1.5 hours in a 350F (177C) oven to thoroughly cook a 3.5 pound chicken. Preparation times for turkeys depend on their weight and are reduced for those roasted in one of the special oven bags. Although there are time/weight charts for frozen turkeys, it is not recommended that they be cooked from the solidly frozen state, because they may not be heated through enough to destroy microorganisms.

As a prelude to preparation, all ready-to-cook poultry should be washed inside and out and then patted dry with paper towels. Dish towels should not be used, because they can become a habitat for microorganisms. About one-fourth of all chickens in the United States carry Salmonella, and about half carry Campylobacter jejuni. A national survey showed that while only about 4 percent of broilers tested positive for Salmonella before processing, the number rose to 36 percent after the carcasses had been subjected to scalding, defeathering, eviscerating, and chilling. For this reason, anything that comes in contact with raw poultry, including hands, cutting boards, sinks, utensils, dishes, and counters, should be cleaned and sanitized afterwards.

Freezing will largely protect against bacterial growth while the poultry is frozen, but precautions should be taken during and after thawing, when any bacteria that are present may begin to grow. The refrigerator is the best place to thaw frozen birds, and its use requires planning ahead. It takes about a day for a 3.5 pound chicken and one to five days for a turkey to defrost, depending on its weight. When the cavity is sufficiently thawed, the package of internal organs should be removed, and the cavity rinsed. Thawing whole poultry at room temperature, in the microwave oven, or under running cold water is not recommended.

After thawing, the bird should be seasoned and/or stuffed and baked immediately. For food safety reasons, the USDA recommends that stuffing be prepared and cooked separately or, if not, at least checked with a meat thermometer to determine if the internal temperature is at least 165F (75C). Prestuffed frozen poultry should never be thawed, but should be prepared, according to package directions, directly from the frozen state. The stuffing should be removed from leftover cooked poultry before the bird is refrigerated or frozen.

Ready-to-cook poultry contains a good deal of inedible bone and unwanted fat, which must be taken into consideration when deciding how much to buy. A good rule of thumb for most poultry is to buy 1/2 pound or slightly more per serving, except for ducks and geese, which have more fat to melt off, resulting in less yield. When purchasing a goose, plan on a bit over 1/2 pound per serving, and whole pound for ducks. Turkeys under 16 pounds, which have a higher bone-to-meat ration, are best purchased at about 1 pound per person.

Common broiler-fryer chickens average 3 1/2 pounds and yield four servings – two breasts, and two leg and thigh pieces. Chickens under 2 1/2 pounds are not economical. Turkeys, especially full-grown toms weighing 18 pounds or more, provide the greatest yield per pound. One of the most economical ways to buy poultry is in its ready-to-cook whole state.